Mysteries of Indus

A fertile cradle of river-fed land, crossing parts of modern India,Pakistan and Afghanistan, gave birth to the Indus valley culture. People in it's impressive, well planned cities lived a refined life, but unlocking more about them is tantalizingly out of reach, as their script remains mostly undeciphered.


The "Early Harappan" period of the Indus valley culture(c.3300 - 2800 BC) saw the first examples of the Indus script, more sophisticated agriculture, and growing trade links.

Indus Valley script

The Indus Valley civilization peaked between about 2600 - 1900 BC, in what often is called its "Mature Harappan" Period.It depended heavily on farmland nourished by major rivers and people developed expert knowledge about how to harness and control the annual flooding patterns of rivers.

Maritime trading connections with Mesopotamia were especially important to the Indus Valley civilization. Indus influenced artifacts have been excavated in Mesopotamia - notably a set of etched carnelian beads.

This civilization went into an unexpected decline, with most of its main cities deserted by c.1700 BC. Mohenjo-Daro suffered severe flooding in the 1700s BC, and was laid waste by unknown attackers.

Mohenjo-Daro
The city's grid pattern is visible here. Archaeologists have guessed at its
structure by giving certain excavated areas names such as "Citadel Mound",
"Lower town", "the Great Bath", but these remain contentious issues.

Pharaohs of The Old Egyptian Kingdom

The Old kingdom of Egypt is best known for the large number of pyramids which were constructed at this time as pharaonic  burial places. for this reason this kingdom is also known as "the Age of the Pyramids". It lasted from 3rd to 6th dynasty(2686 - 2181 BC).


Third Dynasty(2686 - 2613 BC) 

• Djoser was the first pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty. He commissioned the first pyramid in Egypt The Step Pyramid constructed by his chief scribe and architect Imhotep.

  

  Djoser

• Sekhemkhet(2649 - 2643 BC)  was the second pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty. Imhotep participated in the construction of his unfinished step pyramid. 
• Sanakhte(c.2650) was the third pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty.
• Khaba(2643 - 2637 BC) was the fourth pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty. He built an unfinished step pyramid.
• Huni(2637 - 2613 BC) was the fifth and last pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty.  He may have started the meidum pyramid.

Fourth Dynasty(2613 - 2498 BC) 

• Sneferu(2613 – 2589 BC) was the first pharaoh of the 4th dynasty. Built the Meidum Pyramid and the Bent Pyramid, which is a pyramid built at a normal angle at the bottom but drastically changes at the top.
• Khufu(2589 – 2566 BC) was the second pharaoh of 4th dynasty. He built the great pyramid of Giza.

Khufu

• Djedefra(2566 – 2558 BC) was the third pharaoh of 4th dynasty. He is Believed to have created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid at Abu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer intact. 
• Khafre(2558 – 2532 BC) was the fourth pharaoh of 4th dynasty.  His pyramid is the second largest in Giza. 
• Menkaura(2532 – 2503 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of 4th dynasty.  His pyramid is the third and smallest in Giza.
• Shepseskaf(2503 – 2498 BC) was the sixth and last pharaoh of 4th dynasty. Broke with the tradition of pyramid building and instead had the Mastabat el-Fara'un made for himself.

  

  Mastabat el-Fara'un 

Fifth Dynasty(2498 - 2345 BC) 

• Userkaf(2498 – 2491 BC) was the first pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. He is Buried in a pyramid in Saqqara and built the first solar temple at Abusir.
• Sahure(2490 – 2477 BC) was the second pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. He moved the royal necropolis to Abusir, where he built his pyramid.
• Neferirkare Kakai(2477 – 2467 BC) was the third pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. He was Son of Sahure, born with the name Ranefer.
• Neferefre(2460 – 2458 BC) was the fourth pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. He was Son of Neferirkare.
• Nyuserre Ini(2445 – 2422 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. He was Brother to Neferefre.
• Menkauhor Kaiu(2422 – 2414 BC) was the sixth pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. Last pharaoh to build a sun temple.

Menkauhor Kaiu

• Djedkare Isesi(2414 – 2375 BC) was the seventh pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. 
• Unas(2375 – 2345 BC) was the eighth and last pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. The Pyramid of Unas is inscribed with the earliest instance of the pyramid texts .

Sixth Dynasty(2345 - 2181 BC) 

• Teti(2345 – 2333 BC) was the first pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. He was was possibly murdered by his successor.
• Userkare(2333–2332 BC)  was the second pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. He reigned 1 to 5 years, may have usurped the throne at the expense of Teti
• Meryre Pepi I(2332–2283 BC)  was the third pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. 
• Merenre Nemtyemsaf I(2283 – 2278 BC)  was the fourth pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. 

Merenre Nemtyemsaf I

• Neferkare Pepi II(2278 – 2184 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. He was possibly the longest reigning monarch of human history with 94 years on the throne.
• Neferka( 2200 – 2199 BC)  was the sixth pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. He reigned during Pepi II; was possibly his son or co-ruler.
• Merenre Nemtyemsaf II(1 year and 1 month c. 2184 BC) was the seventh pharaoh of the 6th dynasty. He was a short lived pharaoh, possibly an aged son of Pepi II.
• Neitiqerty Siptah(c. 2184–2181 BC) was the eighth and last pharaoh of 6th dynasty. He is sometimes classified as the first king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasties.